China's State Council Information Office on Thursday released a white paper titled "China's Arms Control, Disarmament, and Nonproliferation in the New Era."

China’s Arms Control,

Disarmament, and Nonproliferation

in the New Era

The State Council Information Office of

the People’s Republic of China

November 2025

Contents

Preface    

    I.    Grim Realities: International Security and Arms Control    

    II.    Position and Policies: China’s Arms Control in the New Era    

    III.    Playing a Constructive Role in International Arms Control    

    IV.    Leading International Security Governance in Emerging Fields    

    V.    Strengthening International Cooperation on Nonproliferation and

        Peaceful Uses of Science and Technology    

Conclusion    

Annex I: List of Arms Control, Disarmament, and Nonproliferation

              Treaties That China Has Joined    

Annex II: China’s Laws and Regulations Related to Nonproliferation

                and Export Controls    

Preface

Peace and development are eternal themes of human society. Peace needs to be fought for and be upheld.

Arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation embody humanity’s aspiration to turn swords into plowshares and lay down their weapons. They represent important missions of mitigating the risk of war, addressing the security deficit, and promoting global peace. Together, these efforts are vital to global strategic security and the shared wellbeing of humanity, and have gradually become a common expectation of the international community.

The Chinese nation has always cherished peace and harmony among nations, upheld justice, and opposed abuse of the weak by the strong and excessive use of force. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, it has pursued a path of peaceful development and a national defense policy that is defensive in nature, and firmly opposed all forms of hegemony, aggression, expansion, and arms race. After the restoration of its lawful seat in the United Nations (UN) in 1971, China has actively participated in multilateral arms control and made unremitting efforts to safeguard international peace and security.

In the new era, guided by Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, China is committed to advancing Chinese modernization, puts into action the Global Development Initiative, Global Security Initiative, Global Civilization Initiative, and Global Governance Initiative, and works to build a community with a shared future for humanity in response to the shared aspirations of the international community. It plays a constructive role in international arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation, actively offers its initiatives and solutions, and is committed to improving the international security environment, increasing international security cooperation, addressing global security challenges, and strengthening global security governance. China has been and will always be a builder of world peace, a contributor to global development, and a defender of the international order.

The year 2025 marks the 80th anniversary of the victory of the Chinese People’s War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and the World Anti-Fascist War. It is also the 80th anniversary of the founding of the UN. Peace remains fragile while wars persist, regional conflicts and turmoil are becoming more frequent, and the international arms race continues to escalate. Today, humanity again has to choose between peace and war, dialogue and confrontation, win-win cooperation and zero-sum game. It once again finds itself at a historic crossroads. As such, there is an urgent need to reinvigorate multilateral arms control and consolidate the foundation for peaceful development.

The Chinese government is publishing this white paper to comprehensively present China’s policies and practices on arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation, and its position on security governance in emerging fields such as outer space, cyberspace, and artificial intelligence (AI), to restate its commitment to safeguarding world peace and security, and to call on countries around the world to work together for international arms control.

I. Grim Realities: International Security and Arms Control

In today’s world, the international strategic landscape is evolving at an accelerating pace, the global balance of power is shifting towards greater equilibrium, multilateralism is valued, and factors safeguarding world peace and security are on the rise. At the same time, the global security situation is complicated and menacing: Hegemonism, power politics, and unilateralism pose a severe threat to the post-war international order; geopolitical rivalry is intensifying; regional conflicts and unrest are becoming more frequent; and the arms race is escalating. Concurrently, issues related to international arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation are becoming more complex and multidimensional. Overall, the situation presents both opportunities and challenges.

Competition between major countries is impacting regional peace and security. A certain country seeks absolute strategic superiority by constantly expanding its armaments, strengthening combat readiness, and provoking bloc confrontation. This has led to escalated international and regional arms race, outbreaks of regional conflicts at multiple spots, and repeated new highs in global military expenditures. In particular, this country has strengthened military alliances in the Asia-Pacific region, exercised extended deterrence, and forward-deployed ground-based intermediate-range missiles, provoking tension and opposition and severely undermining the security and interests of countries in the region.

Global strategic stability faces severe threats. This certain country keeps adjusting its nuclear policies, stubbornly maintaining a massive nuclear weapons stockpile while further reinforcing its nuclear deterrence and war-fighting capabilities. This has resulted in rising risks of global nuclear conflicts. Meanwhile, missile defense technologies are advancing rapidly, and military applications in emerging fields such as outer space, cyberspace, and AI are developing at a fast pace. All these factors are reshaping the traditional strategic offense-defense dynamic, posing new challenges to global strategic stability.

The international arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation regimes are eroding. This certain country has undermined the international arms control regime by withdrawing from relevant international agreements. The international nonproliferation regime has suffered from pragmatism and double standards. A handful of countries, driven by a “small yard with high fences” mentality, pursue decoupling, sever industrial and supply chains, and restrict developing countries’ peaceful use of science and technology in the name of nonproliferation.

Security risks and challenges in emerging fields are becoming more prominent. With the rapid development of emerging technologies, uncontrolled use of technologies, data theft, technological crimes, and violation of ethics are on the rise. These issues highlight the absence of international rules and the lag in governance systems. The militarization trend in emerging fields is accelerating. This is destabilizing traditional principles of warfare and war ethics and posing new challenges to global security.

Rising calls for stronger arms control are in essence calls for peace and justice. The Global South is achieving greater autonomy in addressing global security and development affairs. The drive to promote a fair, just and reasonable international arms control regime and to safeguard world peace and stability is growing stronger. China is committed to upholding the international arms control regime with the UN at its core. It actively promotes sound global security governance and serves as a key promoter of international arms control.

II. Position and Policies: China’s Arms Control in the New Era

China’s policies on arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation in the new era are based on its cultural tradition of harmony, its socialist nature, and its strategic commitment to peaceful development. China works to promote global governance in arms control and supports all efforts to build a world of lasting peace and common security.

Building a community with a shared future for humanity. Humanity is both a community with a shared future and an indivisible security community. Safeguarding world peace and security and promoting global strategic balance and stability are key missions of arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation, and also an inherent part of building a community with a shared future for humanity. China has always upheld the common values of all humanity in its arms control endeavors in the new era, and has actively responded to the legitimate and reasonable security concerns of all countries. It is committed to building a new type of international relations characterized by mutual respect, fairness, justice, and win-win cooperation, and working together with other countries to build an open, inclusive, clean and beautiful world of lasting peace, universal security, and shared prosperity.

Actively promoting the Global Security Initiative. This initiative seeks to address the root causes of international conflicts and strengthen global security governance. It offers China’s vision and solutions to the security challenges confronting humanity. Founded on a spirit of solidarity and a win-win mindset, China’s arms control in the new era manifests a vision of common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security. The focus of its policies is whether they can strengthen global strategic stability and contribute to a fair and just security architecture built by all and for the benefit of all. China will take a holistic view towards the role of arms control in promoting strategic balance and stability, perform its functions in safeguarding security and curbing wars, and constructively advance international arms control.

Firmly pursuing a national defense policy that is defensive in nature. This policy is the fundamental guideline for China’s national defense and military development. It defines the basic position of the country’s arms control policy in the new era. China remains committed to peaceful development and will never seek hegemony or expansion, or seek to build spheres of influence. Founded on commitments to defense, self-defense, and striking only after being attacked, China is resolute in safeguarding its sovereignty, security, and development interests. It stays committed to the Chinese path to building a strong military and never engages in any form of arms race. A stronger Chinese military always adds strength to the world’s peaceful forces.

Maintaining open, transparent, reasonable and appropriate national defense spending. China determines its defense expenditure at a reasonable level in accordance with the policy of coordinating development in national defense and economic growth. Compared with the United States and other countries with a strong military, China’s defense spending remains relatively low in terms of its share of GDP, as a proportion of total fiscal expenditure, and on both a per capita and per-service-member basis. China actively participates in the UN’s transparency mechanisms on military expenditures, and ensures transparency regarding the scale, structure, and fundamental purposes of its military budget. Since 2007, it has submitted annual reports on its military expenditures for the previous fiscal year to the UN Report on Military Expenditures.

Upholding the principles of justice, cooperation, balance and effectiveness in arms control. China is committed to fairness and justice. It considers issues on their own merits and decides its position and policies accordingly. China firmly safeguards the basic norms governing international relations based on the purposes and principles of the UN Charter, addresses international arms control and nonproliferation issues in a just, reasonable and nondiscriminatory manner, and opposes political coercion, exceptionalism, and double standards.

China advocates win-win cooperation, true multilateralism, and equal and mutually beneficial international cooperation. It seeks to achieve arms control and nonproliferation objectives through political and diplomatic means.

China maintains an overall balance in its approach, emphasizing both conventional and emerging fields. It addresses both the symptoms and root causes of global security threats in a comprehensive manner while coordinating the handling of complex arms control issues. It respects the fundamental rights and development needs of all countries and strives to balance nonproliferation and peaceful utilization. It opposes abusing the concept of national security and export control measures, and exerting restrictions on developing countries’ rights to peaceful uses and legitimate development.

China pursues practical and effective results, and resolutely upholds the authority, universality and effectiveness of international arms control and nonproliferation regimes. It advances international arms control and nonproliferation processes in a rational, practical and step-by-step manner acceptable to all parties, and rejects attempts to replace the UN platform.

Extensively engaging in the global governance of arms control. In the new era, China’s approach to arms control is guided by the vision of global governance characterized by extensive consultation and joint contribution for shared benefit. China calls for stronger solidarity and cooperation, opposes unilateralism, firmly upholds the status and authority of the UN, and supports the UN in playing an indispensable role in global governance. It advocates for a more inclusive governance framework, more effective multilateral mechanisms, and more proactive international cooperation. It has ratified or signed over 20 multilateral arms control treaties and strictly complies with their obligations.

China has been fully and deeply involved in meetings and activities under the arms control mechanism, including those hosted by the Disarmament and International Security (First Committee) of the UN General Assembly, the UN Disarmament Commission (UNDC), and the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva (CD); it also supports the early convening of the Fourth Special Session of the UN General Assembly Devoted to Disarmament. All these have contributed to safeguarding and strengthening UN-centered multilateral mechanisms.

China also promotes international cooperation in arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation, and facilitates bilateral and multilateral exchanges. It has established arms control and nonproliferation consultation mechanisms with over 20 countries and international organizations to foster mutual understanding and trust.

III. Playing a Constructive Role in International Arms Control

As a permanent member of the UN Security Council, China has actively safeguarded the authority and effectiveness of the international arms control regime, played a constructive role in multilateral arms control in the nuclear, biological, chemical and other fields, and conscientiously performed its duties prescribed by international arms control treaties, making its due contribution to international arms control.

1. Nuclear Arms Control

Nuclear weapons are the sword of Damocles hanging over the head of humanity. Nuclear arms control is an important guarantee of global strategic stability and is integral to the security and development interests of all. Currently, nuclear arms control is facing challenges, as global nuclear strategic rivalries are becoming more intense and complex, and the risk of a nuclear arms race is growing.

China has reiterated on numerous occasions that nuclear weapons must never be used and that a nuclear war must never be fought. From the day it came into possession of these weapons, China has advocated their complete prohibition and thorough destruction. China has always remained committed to the principle of no-first-use of nuclear weapons at any time and under any circumstances, and unconditionally undertakes not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states or nuclear-weapon-free zones.

China has resolutely safeguarded the international nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation regimes, fulfilled its obligations to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and promoted balanced progress in the Treaty’s three pillars – nuclear disarmament, nonproliferation, and peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

(1) Nuclear policy

Upholding a firm commitment to a policy of no-first-use of nuclear weapons and a nuclear strategy of self-defense. China was compelled to make the strategic choice to develop nuclear weapons at a particular point in history to deal with nuclear threats and blackmail, break the existing nuclear monopoly, and prevent nuclear wars. China’s nuclear weapons are not intended to threaten other countries, but for defense and self-protection. China has never used nuclear weapons to threaten other countries nor deployed nuclear weapons outside its own territories, and has never provided a nuclear umbrella for other countries.

Whether confronted with nuclear threats or blackmail during the Cold War, or in a complex international security environment with growing strategic security threats at present, China has always committed to its policy of no-first-use of nuclear weapons, firmly upheld a nuclear strategy of self-defense, and promoted the modernization of its nuclear forces to safeguard China’s own strategic security and overall global strategic stability. China’s greatest contribution to international nuclear arms control lies in the fact that it has the most stable, consistent and predictable nuclear policy among all nuclear-weapon states.

Keeping China’s nuclear capabilities at the minimum level required for national security. China has always exercised the utmost restraint regarding the scale and development of its nuclear weapons. It never has and never will engage in any nuclear arms race with any other country in terms of level of expenditure, quantity, or scale of nuclear weapons. In order to demonstrate its determination to avoid provoking a nuclear arms race, China has conducted the smallest number of nuclear tests among all nuclear-weapon states, and has closed down its nuclear weapon research and production facilities in areas including Chongqing and Qinghai.

In building a lean and effective nuclear force system, China is improving its capabilities in strategic early warning, command and control, missile penetration, and rapid response, as well as its survivability, in order to ensure the safety, security, reliability and effectiveness of its nuclear weapons and deter other countries from using or threatening to use nuclear weapons against China.

Attaching great importance to the safe management and use and effective control of nuclear weapons. China has strict laws and regulations and reliable technical means to implement safety management throughout the entire process of nuclear weapons storage, transportation and training. These effectively prevent any risk of an unauthorized or accidental launch of nuclear missiles, and ensure that the nuclear force is kept absolutely safe and reliable. The command of nuclear forces in China is highly centralized under a streamlined and efficient process, which ensures that unit operations are carried out in the strictest and most accurate compliance with the orders of the Central Military Commission.

Adopting nuclear transparency, confidence-building, and risk reduction measures. China maintains that nuclear transparency should be conducive to strategic mutual trust, take full account of the security environment and interests of each country, and be implemented by themselves voluntarily in accordance with their national conditions. Given the current international security situation, transparency in intentions and policies is of the most practical significance. China firmly follows a path of peaceful development, pursues a nuclear strategy of self-defense, and commits to a no-first-use policy on nuclear weapons. This is the most practical measure of transparency. Since 1995, China has published two white papers on arms control and 10 on national defense, and submitted six national reports on the implementation of the NPT, explaining China’s nuclear policy and strategy as well as the development of its nuclear capabilities.

China has taken a number of confidence-building measures. It has voluntarily notified relevant countries of ballistic missile launches, and signed the Agreement on Notifications of Ballistic Missile and Carrier Rocket Launches with Russia. In September 2024, China notified relevant countries in advance of launching an intercontinental ballistic missile into the Pacific Ocean.

Due to the vast differences between nuclear-weapon states in their nuclear forces and policies, and in their security environment, there are no measures to reduce nuclear risks that can be universally applied. China advocates prioritizing crisis prevention and opposes the hypocritical approach of inciting confrontation and creating crises while calling for the reduction of nuclear risks. Nuclear-weapon states should effectively reduce the nuclear risks by abandoning the policy of aggressive nuclear deterrence based on the first use of nuclear weapons and reducing the role of nuclear weapons in their national and collective security policies.

Promoting the effective operation of the P5 mechanism. The P5 (the five nuclear-weapon states recognized by the NPT who are also the five permanent members of the UN Security Council) mechanism is an important platform enabling the five states to safeguard the architecture of the NPT, and a significant mechanism to strengthen strategic communication and mutual trust. In January 2019, China hosted the P5 Beijing Conference which restarted the cooperation process that had reached a deadlock. In January 2022, China promoted the issuance of the Joint Statement of the Leaders of the Five Nuclear-Weapon States on Preventing Nuclear War and Avoiding Arms Races, reiterating the view that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought. China has taken the lead in compiling two editions of the P5 Glossary of Key Nuclear Terms with other P5 members, which provide a valuable reference for the international community by promoting greater consensus and mutual trust, dispelling misunderstandings, and avoiding misjudgment between the five countries. From August 2024 to August 2025, China served as P5 coordinator again, working to promote greater communication about nuclear policies and strategic mutual trust among the five states.

(2) Nuclear disarmament

Upholding a fair and reasonable, rational and pragmatic approach to nuclear disarmament. China advocates that all nuclear-weapon states should make an unequivocal commitment not to seek permanent possession of nuclear weapons, and seek to conclude a legal instrument on the complete prohibition and thorough destruction of such weapons. Nuclear disarmament should be a just and reasonable process of gradual reduction towards a downward balance that maintains global strategic stability and undiminished security for all, and should be proceeded in a step-by-step manner. Countries possessing the largest nuclear arsenals should fulfill their special and primary responsibilities for nuclear disarmament and continue to make drastic and substantive reductions in their nuclear arsenals in a verifiable, irreversible and legally-binding manner, so as to create the conditions for complete and thorough nuclear disarmament. When conditions are ripe, all nuclear-weapon states should join the multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiation process.

Firmly supporting the purposes and objectives of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). Being one of the first to sign the Treaty in September 1996, China has always honored its commitment to the moratorium on nuclear testing, supported the early entry into force of the Treaty, and promoted domestic preparatory work for its implementation. Since December 2016, five radionuclide and seismic stations in cities including Lanzhou, Guangzhou and Beijing have been certified. In August 2025, the Kunming infrasound station was certified. China has hosted National Data Center Workshops, participated in on-site inspections and other related activities, supported the development of the Treaty’s verification mechanism, and maintained good cooperation with the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO).

Engaging in deliberations on a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT). The CD is the only appropriate forum for negotiating a treaty banning the production of fissile materials for nuclear weapons. China supports negotiating and concluding a multilateral, nondiscriminatory, and internationally verifiable FMCT on the basis of agreeing a comprehensive and balanced program of work and the universal participation of all key stakeholders in accordance with the Shannon Report and the mandate contained therein. China has played a constructive role in related deliberations of both the UN FMCT High-level Expert Preparatory Group and the CD.

Calling for and promoting mutual no-first-use of nuclear weapons. The adoption of a no-first-use policy is a practical move to reduce the role of nuclear weapons in national security policies and achieve the goal of nuclear disarmament. If the five nuclear-weapon states – China, France, Russia, the UK, and the US – could reach a consensus on mutual no-first-use of nuclear weapons, it would be conducive to reducing strategic risks, avoiding nuclear arms races, and promoting global strategic balance and stability.

In January 1994, China submitted a draft treaty on mutual no-first-use of nuclear weapons to the other four states. In the same year, China and Russia declared that they would not make first use of their nuclear weapons or target their strategic nuclear weapons at each other. In June 1998, China and the US declared that they would not target their nuclear weapons at each other. In May 2000, China promoted the declaration of a joint statement of the five nuclear-weapon states that their nuclear weapons would not be targeted at any state. In July 2024, China submitted a working paper to the second session of the Preparatory Committee for the Eleventh Review Conference of the Parties to the NPT, and once again called on nuclear-weapon states to conclude a treaty on mutual no-first-use of nuclear weapons or to issue a political statement to that effect.

Actively responding to the legitimate concerns of non-nuclear-weapon states on security assurances. China maintains that all nuclear-weapon states should undertake not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon states and nuclear-weapon-free zones under any circumstances. In April 1995, China issued a statement reiterating its unconditional provision of negative security assurances to all non-nuclear-weapon states and its commitment to offer them positive security assurances. In May 2000, China and the other nuclear-weapon states issued a joint statement reaffirming their security-assurance commitments under UN Security Council Resolution 984 (1995). In July 2024, China submitted a working paper to the second session of the Preparatory Committee for the Eleventh Review Conference of the Parties to the NPT and advocated early negotiations on and the conclusion of an international legal instrument on unconditional negative security assurances to non-nuclear-weapon states.

(3) Nuclear nonproliferation

Promoting the settlement of nuclear nonproliferation issue through political and diplomatic efforts. China holds that all countries should abandon the Cold War mentality, fully respect each other’s legitimate security concerns, promote peaceful settlement of the concerns of nuclear nonproliferation through political and diplomatic means, and eliminate the root causes of nuclear-weapons proliferation.

China always maintains that dialogue and consultation are the right solution to the Iranian nuclear issue. It has constructively participated in related negotiations, and in July 2015 it facilitated the conclusion of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action on the Iranian nuclear issue. China will maintain an objective and impartial stance, actively promote peace talks, facilitate the settlement of the Iranian nuclear issue through political and diplomatic means, and oppose the use of force or illegal sanctions.

With regard to the Korean Peninsula issue, China adopts an impartial stance and adheres to the right approach of always working for the peace, stability and prosperity of the peninsula and the resolution of the Korean Peninsula issue through political means. China calls on relevant parties to desist from an approach based on aggressive deterrence and coercion, restart dialogue and negotiations, and play a constructive role in resolving the Korean Peninsula issue through political means and realizing lasting peace and stability in the peninsula.

Firmly opposing double standards on nuclear nonproliferation and the practice of favoring geopolitical interests over the international nuclear nonproliferation regime. The nuclear submarine cooperation between the US, the UK, and Australia involves the first transfer of naval nuclear propulsion reactors and weapons-grade highly enriched uranium from nuclear-weapon states to a non-nuclear-weapon state. This apparently runs counter to the object and purpose of the NPT and severely undermines the international nuclear nonproliferation regime. China maintains that relevant safeguards arrangements should be thoroughly discussed by member states of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) through an intergovernmental process, and decisions should be made by consensus. China firmly opposes nuclear sharing, extended deterrence, and other arrangements that undermine the international nuclear nonproliferation regime, and urges relevant countries to stop deploying nuclear weapons abroad.

Respecting and supporting efforts to establish nuclear-weapon-free zones. China respects and supports the efforts of relevant countries and regions to establish nuclear-weapon-free zones or zones free of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) on the basis of their own consultations and voluntary agreements. Nuclear-weapon states should respect the status of nuclear-weapon-free zones and assume their corresponding obligations. China has signed and ratified the Additional Protocol II to the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, the Protocols II and III to the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, the Protocols I and II to the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, and the Protocol to the Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Central Asia. China firmly supports the efforts of ASEAN countries to establish a nuclear-weapon-free zone, and stands ready to take the lead in signing the Protocol to the Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone. China respects and welcomes the nuclear-weapon-free status of Mongolia. China supports similar efforts in the Middle East, and has constructively participated as an observer in the five sessions of the Conference on the Establishment of a Middle East Zone Free of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction from 2019 to 2024.

(4) Peaceful uses of nuclear energy

Actively conducting international cooperation on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. China always maintains that efforts to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons should not impede the legitimate rights of all countries, and in particular developing countries, to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. China opposes the politicization of peaceful uses of nuclear energy which may disrupt and restrict normal international cooperation. China has actively explored broader and deeper bilateral and multilateral nuclear cooperation, and promoted inclusive sharing of nuclear energy benefits. It has shared its technologies and experience with other countries, provided resources and platforms, and supported other developing countries in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, all while supporting the realization of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and promoting the peaceful uses of nuclear energy for the benefit of humanity. China has signed intergovernmental cooperation agreements on the peaceful uses of nuclear energy with more than 30 countries and regions, sent experts on more than 4,000 trips to serve countries in the Global South, and provided training sessions with over 6,000 recorded attendances from abroad.

Adhering to a rational, coordinated and balanced approach to nuclear safety and security and building a fair, collaborative, and mutually beneficial international nuclear security system. China has synergized multiple elements such as legal norms, administrative regulation, industry self-discipline, technical support, personnel support, cultural guidance, and public participation to build a robust accountability system for nuclear safety. This system has ensured nuclear and radiation safety and maintained a sound long-term nuclear safety record.

China has abided by the Convention on Nuclear Safety, the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and its Amendment, the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, and other international laws, fulfilled its international obligations, and supported the IAEA in playing an active role. It has helped other developing countries improve their nuclear safety and security capabilities, promoted international cooperation on combating nuclear terrorism, and prevented the acquisition of sensitive nuclear materials by non-state entities. China opposes any kind of attack on peaceful nuclear facilities, including nuclear power plants. Nuclear terrorism is an enemy of all humanity, and the impact of nuclear security incidents transcends national borders. All countries should engage in nuclear security affairs and adopt an open and inclusive spirit to forge a community with a shared future on nuclear security.

2. Missiles and Missile Defense

The issue of missiles and missile defense has a significant impact on global strategic balance and stability. After the Cold War, a certain country withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) and the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty)  and developed global strategic missile defense capabilities, blurring the line between missile defense and strategic offense on purpose and stirring up confrontation among major countries. This has severely undermined strategic mutual trust, increased strategic risks, and damaged global and regional security and stability. China has always addressed issues related to missiles and missile defense from the perspective of maintaining global strategic stability and improving mutual trust.

Firmly opposing the deployment of missiles and missile defense systems that undermine the legitimate security interests of other countries. In pursuit of absolute security, this certain country has advanced the Golden Dome global missile defense system without restraint and sought to deploy weapons in outer space, severely threatening outer space security. It has promoted the forward deployment of intermediate-range missile systems in the Asia-Pacific region and Europe and leveraged the military alliance system to facilitate the proliferation of related weapon systems and technologies, undermining the global strategic balance and stability. China firmly opposes such arrangements and urges the country to stop the development and deployment of global missile defense systems, and to cease the forward deployment of offensive weapons including missiles. China will resolutely counter any acts that threaten or undermine its core interests.

Properly developing missile technologies for self-defense. China has a vast territory and must deal with a complex and volatile security environment. To safeguard its security and sovereignty and deter wars, China requires modern military equipment and capabilities adapted to its conditions and needs. China’s development of missile technologies and missile defense capabilities is motivated exclusively by self-defense and does not target any country or region.

3. Biosecurity

Biosecurity knows no borders. Its impact on the lives and health of humanity and the common interests of the world is of critical importance. At present, traditional and emerging biosecurity risks are compounded, and new biotechnologies face greater risks of misuse and abuse, creating a more complex international biosecurity situation.

China has earnestly implemented relevant international treaties and thoroughly engaged in global biosecurity governance. It firmly opposes the proliferation of biological weapons, their means of delivery, and all related technologies. It resolutely combats bioterrorism and actively promotes the peaceful uses of biotechnologies.

Taking the initiative to fulfill its treaty obligations and prevent proliferation in the biological field. China has included biosecurity in its national security strategy and enacted and enforced the Biosecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China. It continues to modernize its governance system and capacity, and strengthen its biosecurity institutions and capacity building. China always fully and rigorously fulfills its international obligations, including those under the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) . In the process of consistently improving national implementation of the Convention, it has established a mechanism involving the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of National Defense, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Public Security, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, the National Health Commission, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and other institutions, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs designated as the National Contact Point. China resolutely opposes the proliferation of bioweapons, their means of delivery, and all related technologies, and continues to reinforce export controls over dual-use biological items.

Actively leading the global biosecurity governance. China is firmly committed to the purposes and objectives of the BWC; it supports the strengthening and institutionalization of the Convention in all its aspects, and advocates the conclusion through negotiation of a legally binding protocol with an effective verification mechanism to reinforce the authority, effectiveness, and universality of the Convention. This would ensure that the BWC plays an important role in eliminating bioweapon threats, preventing bioweapon proliferation, and promoting the peaceful uses of biotechnologies.

To address global biosecurity challenges, China supports the establishment of a dedicated global biological arms control and biosecurity agency and advocates better coordination among relevant international organizations. It participates fully in activities under the UN Secretary-General’s Mechanism for Investigation of Alleged Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons (UNSGM), nominates experts and laboratories to the UNSGM roster, and has hosted several laboratory exercises. China continues to strengthen dialogue and cooperation with or within organizations and mechanisms such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), BRICS, ASEAN, and the China-Central Asia mechanism to build a broad consensus on safeguarding global biosecurity.

Providing international biosecurity public goods. In July 2021, Chinese scientists, together with their international peers, developed Tianjin Biosecurity Guidelines for Codes of Conduct for Scientists, which has been endorsed by the InterAcademy Partnership and has played a guiding role in ensuring responsible biological research and preventing the misuse and abuse of biotechnologies.

China actively helps other developing countries to improve their public health systems and their professional expertise. It engages in practical bilateral and multilateral cooperation in Asia-Pacific, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean in fields such as communicable disease prevention and control, health emergency response, inspection and quarantine, medical technology, biosafety laboratory management, and animal health and quarantine. Carrying on the great tradition of South-South cooperation, it has helped other developing countries to strengthen their biosecurity talent pools by hosting international seminars and workshops on biosafety laboratories management and techniques and the prevention and control of communicable diseases and animal epidemic diseases.

China promotes all-round international cooperation on combating Covid-19 and other communicable diseases and animal epidemic diseases. To this end, China has directed its strength to the global epidemic prevention and control effort by providing vaccines and anti-epidemic supplies, sharing solutions to epidemic prevention and control and to diagnosis and treatment, and sharing information on communicable diseases and animal epidemic diseases, including the complete genome sequence of the novel coronavirus.

4. Chemical Weapons

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)  has played an important role in safeguarding international and regional peace and security and promoting peaceful uses of chemistry. Currently, abandoned and old chemical weapons and other outstanding problems from the past remain; hotspot issues related to chemical weapons persist and are hard to resolve; and the convergence of emerging technologies such as AI and security concerns involving dual-use chemicals are becoming increasingly prominent. Peaceful uses of chemistry are yet to be fully ensured. China has always upheld the authority and effectiveness of the CWC, strictly fulfills its international obligations, and engages thoroughly in the work of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). It joins forces with others to build a world free of chemical weapons, and helps to ensure that progress in chemistry is used solely for the benefit of humanity.

Fulfilling its obligations under the CWC. As an original contracting state party to the CWC, China has put in place a nationwide and effectively managed implementation system by actively improving legislation on national implementation and establishing an inter-ministerial joint meeting mechanism for implementation. It has submitted declarations in a timely manner, has maintained more declared industrial facilities, and received more OPCW inspections than any other state party. By the end of 2024, it had received a total of 701 on-site inspections, 508 of which were of civilian industrial facilities, making it the first state party to receive more than 500 civilian industrial facility inspections. In April 2023, China submitted the Position Paper of the People’s Republic of China on Industry Verification to the Fifth Review Conference of the CWC, to promote the establishment of a global implementation governance system that is better structured, more reasonable and more efficient.

Addressing hotspot chemical weapon issues in accordance with the CWC. China resolutely opposes the use of chemical weapons by any country, any organization, or any individual under any circumstances. It supports comprehensive, objective and impartial investigation – in accordance with the CWC – into incidents which may involve the use of chemical weapons, to reach conclusions which respect facts and will withstand the test of time. It opposes political manipulations using hotspot issues related to chemical weapons as a pretext, and any attempts to start things anew circumventing the investigation mechanism of the CWC.

Promoting international cooperation on peaceful uses of chemistry. In recent years, together with the Non-Aligned Movement, China has pushed for the adoption of multiple decisions by the OPCW on promoting international cooperation on peaceful uses. In May 2023, China and 14 other state parties jointly submitted to the Fifth Review Conference of the CWC a working paper on Promoting International Cooperation on Peaceful Uses Under the Framework of the CWC. The paper presents proposals on strengthening the peaceful uses of chemistry and removing excessive restrictions on developing countries’ use of chemical materials, technologies and equipment for peaceful purposes.

Together with the OPCW, China has hosted several events, including regional meetings of national authorities in Asia, symposiums on regional implementation, inspectors training sessions, an international workshop on AI and chemical safety and security management, and an advanced training session on comprehensive international management of chemicals, in order to reinforce implementation capacities of state parties.

Urging Japan to thoroughly destroy the chemical weapons it abandoned in China. During World War II, in flagrant violation of international law, invading Japanese troops used chemical weapons on a large scale in China. A total of 1,791 instances of chemical weapon use have been documented with confirmed dates, locations, and casualty records. The resulting casualties exceeded 200,000. After its defeat, Japan abandoned a large quantity of chemical weapons in China to cover up its crimes. Since the end of World War II, these abandoned chemical weapons have resulted in more than 2,000 poisoning casualties, gravely endangered the lives and property of the Chinese people as well as the environment.

The CWC clearly stipulates that a state party which has abandoned chemical weapons on the territory of another state party shall provide all necessary financial, technical, expert, facility as well as other resources for the purpose of destroying these weapons. After the CWC entered into force, the governments of China and Japan signed two memorandums, in 1999 and 2012, on destroying the chemical weapons abandoned by Japan, to advance the destruction process. However, due to insufficient attention and input from the Japanese side, the destruction plan has missed four deadlines. To date, the Japanese side has not yet provided comprehensive, detailed and accurate information on the whereabouts of its abandoned chemical weapons. Progress in excavation and recovery in some regions has been slow; there are still technological bottlenecks in underwater and underground detection; and the treatment of contaminated waters and soil remains unresolved.

Destroying its abandoned chemical weapons in China is Japan’s unshirkable historical, political and legal responsibility, and also an international obligation stipulated by the CWC. China urges Japan to earnestly shoulder its responsibilities and implement the destruction plan in a comprehensive, complete and accurate manner, increasing all necessary inputs, speeding up the destruction process, doing its utmost to collect and promptly share with China information on the whereabouts of such weapons, actively coordinating with China in searching for and confirming clues, and effectively fulfilling its responsibility for treating contaminated water and soil. The international community should continue to monitor and support the destruction of the chemical weapons abandoned by Japan, and the OPCW should strengthen political review, supervision, and verification to eliminate these pernicious weapons as quickly as possible, ultimately realizing the vision of a world free of chemical weapons.

5. Conventional Weapons

Currently, regional armed conflicts and instability are frequent, illicit transfers of conventional weapons are growing, and the incidence of terrorism, extremism, and cross-border organized crimes remains high. All these pose a grave threat to international and regional security and stability.

In order to safeguard lasting global peace and universal security, China firmly supports global conventional arms control, fully participates in relevant mechanisms within the UN framework, and advocates strengthening and steadily improving international legal mechanisms for conventional arms control on the basis of balancing the legitimate security needs of all countries and humanitarian concerns.

Fully supporting global conventional arms control. As a state party to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW)  and its five additional protocols, China has always faithfully fulfilled its obligations under the Convention and the protocols. It has diligently implemented the UN PoA on small arms and light weapons  and the International Tracing Instrument , and actively engaged in international cooperation on the management of small arms and light weapons. It has also worked to advance the adoption of the Global Framework for Through-Life Conventional Ammunition Management.

China supports stronger global efforts on firearms control. It ratified the Firearms Protocol  in October 2023, and actively participates in the firearms trafficking operations of the UN, the World Customs Organization, and Interpol. It has supported African countries in implementing the “Silencing the Guns in Africa” initiative through concrete actions.

By routinely submitting reports to the UN Register of Conventional Arms, China is making a contribution to stronger control over conventional weapons and greater transparency in their transfers.

Actively participating in the governance of global arms trade. China adopts a prudent and responsible approach to arms trade. It strictly manages the export of military products and rigorously observes its international obligations and the relevant resolutions of the UN Security Council. In July 2020, China formally acceded to the Arms Trade Treaty. It diligently meets the obligations thereunder and works to advance orderly and rational international arms trade.

China has formulated and strictly abided by three principles for military exports: that they contribute to the recipient country’s legitimate self-defense capability; that they do not undermine the peace, security and stability of the region concerned and the wider world; and that they involve no interference in the recipient country’s internal affairs.

In arms trade cooperation, China engages exclusively with sovereign states and undertakes not to sell weapons to entities with no governmental authorization. It clearly requires recipient countries to provide end-user and end-use certificates and a commitment not to transfer military items imported from China to any third party without China’s prior consent.

Strengthening international assistance and cooperation on mine action. China devotes great attention to humanitarian challenges posed by landmines. Since 1998, it has provided training sessions, mine detection and clearing devices, on-site mine clearing assistance, victim support, and humanitarian supplies to more than 40 Asian, African and Latin American countries, and has held almost 30 international humanitarian mine clearance training sessions. Chinese peacekeeping troops have removed more than 21,600 landmines and unexploded ordnance of various types in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cambodia, and Liberia, earning gratitude from the UN and the countries concerned. In 2024, China announced the launch of its “Action for a Mine-Free Africa”. In the same year, China and ASEAN issued the China-ASEAN Foreign Ministers’ Joint Statement on Strengthening Humanitarian Mine Action Cooperation, charting the course for future collaboration.

IV. Leading International Security Governance

in Emerging Fields

Emerging fields such as outer space, cyberspace, and AI represent new frontiers for human development. They create a new focus of strategic security, and new territories of global governance. China proposes that with the universal participation of all countries, the UN should play a pivotal role in fostering a global governance framework and standards for emerging fields based on broad consensus, while increasing the representation and voice of developing countries. States should take practical measures to prevent security risks, address security challenges, and promote peaceful uses of technologies in emerging fields. The discriminatory and exclusive rules, standards, and codes of conduct formulated by certain country blocs cannot replace universally accepted international norms, still less serve as an excuse for sanctioning and suppressing other nations.

1. Outer Space Security

The lasting peace and security in outer space is of vital importance to the security, development and prosperity of all nations and the wellbeing and long-term interests of humanity. China is always committed to the peaceful uses and the security of outer space. It firmly safeguards the international order in outer space based on international law, actively participates in global governance of outer space security, and advocates the building of a community with a shared future for humanity in the exploration and peaceful use of outer space. It resolutely opposes offensive space military policies, the creation of space military alliances, the weaponization of outer space, any attempt to turn outer space into a new theater of conflict, and any arms race there. It objects to the use of commercial space activities to intervene in other countries’ armed conflicts or internal affairs.

Advocating comprehensive governance of outer space security. Outer space security rules that are open, inclusive, and universally-accepted hold the key to strengthening outer space security governance. China supports the UN in playing its role as the main platform in this endeavor – upholding multilateralism, providing comprehensive and harmonized responses to relevant issues, coordinating efforts in arms control and the peaceful uses and sustainable long-term development of outer space, facilitating the formulation of a comprehensive governance framework for outer space security, and ensuring all countries’ common rights and interests in the peaceful exploration of outer space.

Working on the prevention of an arms race in outer space. An arms race in outer space constitutes the gravest and most fundamental threat to outer space security. Countering this threat is essential for ensuring peace, stability and sustainability in outer space, and reaching a legally binding instrument on arms control in outer space through negotiation is the fundamental solution. The Chinese-Russian draft of the Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Objects (PPWT), initially submitted to the CD in 2008 and updated in 2014, formed the basis of the negotiation and conclusion of a legally binding instrument on outer space arms control. China facilitated the establishment of the UN Group of Governmental Experts on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space in 2017, and again in 2022, making substantive contributions to the formulation of a legally binding instrument in this regard. China’s vision of a community with a shared future for humanity in the exploration and peaceful use of outer space has gained wide international support, with its inclusion in relevant UN General Assembly resolutions for several consecutive years.

Conducting aerospace activities with transparency and openness. China adheres to the principles of equality, mutual trust, transparency, and openness in aerospace activities and outer space governance. Through government white papers on space activities and national defense, information releases by the Ministry of National Defense, and other means, it has communicated on many occasions its commitment to peaceful space development and policies for outer space security, as well as its major activities, capacity development, and international cooperation efforts. It opens national aerospace infrastructure, such as launch sites and the Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center, to the public, diligently fulfills its international obligations including space objects registration, and notifies relevant states and international organizations regarding space activities, including spacecraft re-entry notices and collision alerts. It plays a constructive role in the UNGGE on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities and consistently co-sponsors relevant resolutions at the UN General Assembly.

Jointly maintaining peace and security in outer space. China develops space science and technology and advances its space programs for the benefit of humanity. It develops its Aerospace Force, safeguards national space activities, personnel, assets, and other interests, ensures secure access to and open uses of outer space, and increases its effectiveness in space crisis management and comprehensive governance. China is ready to work with all peace-loving countries to promote international exchange and cooperation on outer space security and contribute to lasting peace and common security in outer space.

2. Cybersecurity

The rapid development of the internet and digital technology has profoundly altered the global economy and security governance. The global threats created by bloc confrontation, militarization and division in cyberspace are increasingly prominent and exacerbating. Cyberspace is a common space for human activities, and its future should be in the hands of all countries. China actively advances global cyberspace governance and engages in international dialogue and cooperation. It firmly champions international rules, safeguards sovereignty and security, and promotes peace and stability in cyberspace.

Advocating the vision of a community with a shared future in cyberspace. In December 2015, China proposed building a community with a shared future in cyberspace, offering a solution to global internet development and governance. This vision establishes four principles for reforming global internet governance and a five-point initiative on building a community with a shared future in cyberspace. The four principles are: respect for cyber sovereignty, maintenance of peace and security, promotion of openness and cooperation, and formulation of good order. The five-point initiative advocates expediting the construction of global internet infrastructure for greater connectivity, building a shared online platform for cultural exchange and mutual learning, promoting innovative development of the cyber economy for common prosperity, ensuring cybersecurity for orderly development, and establishing an internet governance system for fairness and justice. China underlines the imperative for collective action to promote development, safeguard security, participate in governance, and share the benefits.

In 2023, China put forward the major initiative to raise the vision to a new stage, championing development as a priority, joint responsibility for common security, and mutual learning between cultures, and emphasizing the need to accelerate innovative, secure and inclusive development in cyberspace. Having been included into resolutions of the UN General Assembly, the vision has been widely acclaimed and welcomed by the international community.

Upholding the principle of cyber sovereignty. Cyber sovereignty constitutes the natural extension and application of the principle of sovereignty equality enshrined in the UN Charter to cyberspace. China holds that countries have the right to exercise jurisdiction over information and communications infrastructure, resources, data, and relevant activities within their territories, and protect their information systems and important data from threats, interference, attacks, theft and destruction. They are entitled to formulate their public policies, laws, and regulations on cyberspace to protect the legitimate internet rights and interests of their citizens, legal persons, and organizations. They have the right to jointly manage and equitably allocate foundational internet resources and build a multilateral, democratic and transparent international internet governance system. No nation shall abuse information and communications technologies to disseminate disinformation, interfere in other countries’ internal affairs, promote “peaceful evolution” schemes, and instigate color revolutions, thereby endangering other countries’ national security and social stability.

Safeguarding cyberspace peace and security. Peaceful uses of cyberspace are in the common interests of humanity, and maintaining cybersecurity is a responsibility shared by all countries. Cyberspace should not be turned into a new theater of geopolitical conflicts. China opposes attempts to “own the domain” from a position of strength and carry out large-scale, systemic and indiscriminate theft and cyberattacks around the globe. It condemns a certain country’ wanton targeting of other nations’ critical infrastructure in cyberattacks, which places global critical infrastructure at grave risk. It rejects the introduction of ideological confrontation and military alliance into cyberspace under the guise of “cybersecurity cooperation”, including the deployment of cyber forces in the Asia-Pacific region, and the proliferation of cyber weapons and systems, which may increase risks of miscalculation and escalation.

Promoting international cooperation on cybersecurity. In March 2017, China released the International Strategy of Cooperation on Cyberspace for peaceful development and mutually beneficial cooperation in cyberspace. It has carried out bilateral cyber affairs dialogues and cooperation: establishing dialogue mechanisms with Russia, France, Germany, the EU, and ASEAN, and expanding practical cooperation in cyberspace and the digital sector with countries in Central Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. It has worked with other SCO member states to release a heads-of-state joint statement on information security, set up an expert group on information security, and facilitated the conclusion of the Agreement on Cooperation in Ensuring International Information Security Between the Member States of the SCO with accompanying plans of cooperation. It has contributed to the agreement on the BRICS Roadmap of Practical Cooperation on Ensuring Security in the Use of ICTs and its progress report, identifying areas of cooperation such as policy exchange, emergency response, and collaboration on law enforcement.

Leading the efforts to build an international governance system for cybersecurity. China supports the establishment of a cybersecurity process under the UN framework with the participation of all parties, and promotes the formulation and implementation of universally accepted international rules on cybersecurity. In September 2011, China, together with Russia and others, jointly submitted the International Code of Conduct for Information Security to the UN General Assembly, which was updated and submitted again in 2015 by all the SCO members then. This was the first comprehensive and systematic international document dedicated to norms of behavior in cyberspace. In December 2021, in its position paper submitted to the UN, China elaborated on its principles and policies concerning the international rules for cyberspace.

China is an active participant in the UN Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of ICTs in the Context of International Security and the UN Open-Ended Working Group on Security of and in the Use of ICTs. It has advanced the adoption of the Framework for Responsible State Behavior in the use of ICTs based on the International Code of Conduct for Information Security. This framework explicitly affirms the applicability of the UN Charter to cyberspace, respects states’ sovereignty, and stands as the sole code of conduct for states in global emerging technology governance. China is committed to full observation and implementation of the framework, and calls for developing new global rules on cyber and digital security in light of evolving circumstances and technological advancement. It maintains a prudent approach towards the application of the law of armed conflict to cyberspace issues, and encourages the formulation of new international legal instruments through inclusive discussions among all parties when condition permits.

Providing its solutions to global governance of data security. In September 2020, China launched the Global Initiative on Data Security, which proposes constructive solutions to major issues such as critical infrastructure and personal information protection, enterprises’ overseas data storage and access, and supply chain security, providing a blueprint for developing relevant global rules. To pool strength for data security governance and shape a global data security governance system, in March 2021 and June 2022 China respectively released the China-League of Arab States Cooperation Initiative on Data Security with the League of Arab States and the China + Central Asia Data Security Cooperation Initiative with the five Central Asian countries. In November 2024, it proposed the Global Cross-Border Data Flow Cooperation Initiative to facilitate global cooperation on cross-border data flows and establish an efficient, convenient and secure mechanism for international data transfer.

Building up capacity to safeguard its cyber sovereignty and security. China has long been subjected to foreign cyber infiltration, espionage, and attacks, which pose complex and severe threats to its cyber sovereignty and critical infrastructure. China advances its cyberspace capabilities by strengthening cybersecurity defense, situation awareness, emergency response, disaster backup, and attribution and evidence collection. These measures enable timely detection of and defense against cyber intrusions, containment of cyber crises, deterrence against cyber conflicts, and greater cyber counterbalance ability, thereby solidifying national cyber borders. China will adopt all necessary measures to address cyberattacks against its critical infrastructure and steadfastly defend its cyber sovereignty and security.

3. Military Applications of AI

The rapid development and widespread application of AI technology has profoundly altered the way people work and live, brought new geopolitical uncertainties, and catalyzed a new wave of military transformation. Recent regional conflicts have demonstrated significant changes in warfare formats and approaches with the emergence of UAV swarms, intelligent weapon platforms, and AI-assisted systems, raising concerns in the international community. China champions the vision of a community with a shared future for humanity in AI development and places equal emphasis on development and security to ensure safe, reliable and controllable military applications of AI.

Upholding a people-centered approach and the principle of AI for good. China believes that military applications of AI should never undermine humanity’s wellbeing; instead, they should facilitate trust among countries, help maintain global strategic stability, and prevent arms races. Human primacy must be upheld and human beings rather than weapons should be the decisive element for the outcome of a war. It is essential to ensure that human beings take the ultimate responsibility and that all relevant weapons systems are under human control to prevent unauthorized actions. The application of AI in the military domain must be conducted in accordance with International Humanitarian Law and other applicable international laws.

Calling for an international governance framework for the military applications of AI. China has launched the Global AI Governance Initiative and released the Position Paper of the People’s Republic of China on Regulating Military Applications of AI, proposing that all countries, especially major countries, should take a prudent and responsible approach to developing and using AI technology in the military domain. China plays a constructive role in relevant discussions under the UN framework and advocates multilateralism, openness and inclusiveness. It supports the establishment of a universally inclusive international mechanism and a governance framework based on broad consensus. It opposes drawing ideological lines and overextending the concept of national security. It is dedicated to eliminating deliberately created sci-tech barriers to ensure that all countries have the right to develop and use technologies for peaceful purposes. It also thoroughly engages in the work of the Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons System under the framework of the CCW and contributes to the formulation of relevant guiding principles.

Reinforcing risk prevention and control in the military applications of AI. China does not and will not engage in any AI arms race with other countries; rather it advances its military intelligence and builds its modern military forces with Chinese characteristics in accordance with global military revolution trends, national security requirements, the practical needs of national defense, and the realities of its military development. Remaining prepared to worst-case scenarios and potential threats, China highlights the necessity to establish a quality control system and risk response mechanism, takes necessary measures to mitigate proliferation risks, and strengthens AI-related military ethics and security education.

V. Strengthening International Cooperation

on Nonproliferation and Peaceful Uses of

Science and Technology

The international nonproliferation regime plays an important role in preventing and deferring the proliferation of WMD and their means of delivery and in safeguarding international and regional peace and security. At present, the risks and challenges of the proliferation of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons and their means of delivery persist. Scientific and technological progress has led to a more multifaceted risk of non-State actors acquiring WMD. Unilateralism and double standards are on the rise. Developing countries are still faced with restrictions on peaceful uses of science and technology. The international community is calling for a more equitable and rational international nonproliferation regime. China continues to build its domestic nonproliferation capacity, actively participating in the international nonproliferation process, promoting international cooperation on peaceful uses of science and technology, and facilitating the improvement of global nonproliferation governance.

1. China’s Nonproliferation Policy and Practice

China has always firmly opposed the proliferation of WMD and their means of delivery, and strictly implemented the relevant UN Security Council resolutions. China fully fulfills its obligations within the framework of the NPT, the BWC, the CWC and international organizations such as the IAEA and the OPCW, submits timely national reports or declarations of confidence-building measures, and plays a leading role in facilitating international nonproliferation cooperation.

Strengthening export control system. China has stepped up efforts to improve its export control system and has established a system of laws and regulations based on the Export Control Law of the People’s Republic of China, covering nuclear, biological, chemical, missile and other dual-use items, military products and nuclear materials, etc. This has placed export control under law-based and standardized governance. In December 2024, the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Export Control of Dual-Use Items and the Export Control List of Dual-Use Items of the People’s Republic of China went into force, further strengthening governance effectiveness in the export control of dual-use items.

Improving nonproliferation and export control regulatory capacity. China continuously improves its export control enforcement mechanisms. It has established a coordinated and robust enforcement system, strengthening export control regulation in all areas including production, research and development, exports and financing. In accordance with common international practice and national development needs, China has taken measures such as inter-departmental information exchange, the formation of expert support teams and the strengthening of law enforcement forces, to promptly investigate and deal with violations. Such measures serve to ensure targeted and effective nonproliferation and export controls, and deter potential violations. The Chinese government has been actively conducting compliance training programs for enterprises, research institutions, higher education institutions and other entities, to raise public awareness.

2. Promotion of a Fair, Reasonable and Nondiscriminatory International Nonproliferation Order

Upholding and promoting international and regional peace and security is the fundamental goal of nonproliferation. China has always maintained that the right to representation and participation of all states, particularly developing ones, should be fully guaranteed and promoted in the formulation of nonproliferation-related rules and mechanisms. China advocates a holistic approach to development and security, and a balanced approach to nonproliferation and international cooperation on peaceful uses, to effectively safeguard the right of developing countries to development, and make the international nonproliferation system more fair, reasonable and nondiscriminatory.

Supporting the central role of the UN in the field of nonproliferation. China actively participates in the work of the Committee established pursuant to UN Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004), supports the effective implementation of Resolution 1540 at the national, regional and international levels, strengthens domestic management and export control over WMD and related materials and technologies, and prevents and combats the acquisition of sensitive items by non-State actors. China has co-hosted four training courses for UN Security Council Resolution 1540 Points of Contact in the Asia-Pacific region, together with the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs and the 1540 Committee.

Actively participating in the building of international nonproliferation and export control system. As a participant of the Nuclear Suppliers Group, China always maintains that strengthening the universality, authority and effectiveness of the NPT should be the goal of and criterion for the Group’s work. China actively participates in discussions related to the revision and improvement of the Group’s guidelines and control lists. China supports the reasonable proposition of the developing countries, represented by the Non-Aligned Movement, that nonproliferation concerns are best addressed through multilaterally negotiated, universal, comprehensive and nondiscriminatory agreements. Based on this position, China maintains contacts with mechanisms such as the Missile Technology Control Regime, the Australia Group and the Wassenaar Arrangement, and encourages the relevant mechanisms to maintain their technical nature, fulfill their commitments to not interfering with peaceful uses and normal international trade in relevant fields, and play a constructive role in promoting common security and universal development.

3. Firm Commitment to Upholding the Legitimate Right to the Peaceful Uses of Science and Technology

China attaches importance to the security challenges and proliferation risks posed by emerging science and technology. At the same time, it advocates for maintaining the legitimate right of developing countries to peaceful uses of science and technology, opposes the use of export controls as a tool for decoupling, and stands against the abuse of export controls and unilateral sanctions under the pretext of international security and nonproliferation.

To uphold this stance, together with countries in similar positions, China submitted for the first time the draft resolution entitled “Promoting International Cooperation on Peaceful Uses in the Context of International Security”, to the First Committee of the 76th session of the UN General Assembly in October 2021, which emphasizes the inalienable right of all states to participate in the fullest possible exchange of technology, equipment, and materials for peaceful purposes under international law and calls for the removal of undue restrictions on developing countries. The resolution received broad support. Subsequently, at its 77th and 79th sessions, the General Assembly again adopted the resolution by an overwhelming majority. China welcomes further inclusive dialogues among all parties to promote effective implementation of the resolution.

Conclusion

For thousands of years, humanity has yearned for enduring peace, yet war lingers unresolved as an ever-present shadow. Arms control, disarmament, and nonproliferation serve as an important barrier, preventing humanity from slipping into the abyss of war. Over the past eight decades, a multilateral arms control regime with the UN at its core has progressively taken shape and become mature, playing a pivotal role in mitigating conflict and maintaining peace.

At present, change on a scale unseen in a century is accelerating: The trends towards peace, development, cooperation, and mutual benefit remain unstoppable, while escalating risks of confrontation, conflict and war are exacerbating global instability and disorder, and the process of multilateral arms control has reached a low ebb. A dangerous prospect is emerging, in which international relations are falling back into the law of the jungle, and the weak are at the mercy of the strong.

No matter how the world changes, China stands firmly on the right side of history and on the side of human progress, and serves as a staunch force for upholding world peace and security. It will practice true multilateralism, take on its responsibility as a major country, and work tirelessly to promote international arms control, providing reliable stability in a turbulent world.

A noble cause is never a lonely pursuit, and collective efforts ensure sustained progress. Chinese modernization follows the path of peaceful development, and China’s growth contributes to the growth of the world’s peaceful forces. China stands ready to work with all peace-loving countries to build an equal and orderly multipolar world and promote universally beneficial and inclusive economic globalization. It will consolidate and develop the UN-centered international arms control regime, work with all parties to build a community with a shared future for humanity, and create a brighter future for all.

Annex I: List of Arms Control,

Disarmament, and Nonproliferation Treaties

That China Has Joined

(As of November 2025)

I. In the Nuclear Field

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material

Amendment to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material

Convention on Nuclear Safety

International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism

Additional Protocol II to the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean

Protocols II and III to the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty

Protocols I and II to the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty

Protocol to the Treaty on a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone in Central Asia

Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Seabed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof

Agreement Between the People’s Republic of China and the International Atomic Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards in China

Additional Protocol to the Agreement Between China and the International Atomic Energy Agency for the Application of Safeguards in China

II. In the Biological Field

Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction

III. In the Chemical Field

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction

IV. In the Conventional Field

Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects and Protocols I-III

Amended Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices Annexed to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (Amended Protocol II)

Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons Annexed to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (Protocol IV)

Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War Annexed to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (Protocol V)

Protocol Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime

Arms Trade Treaty

V. In Other Fields

The Antarctic Treaty

Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space

Treaty on Principles Concerning the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques

Annex II: China’s Laws and Regulations

Related to Nonproliferation and Export Controls

(As of November 2025)

I. In the Nuclear Field

Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Control of Nuclear Materials

Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Control of Nuclear Export

Nuclear Export Control List

Regulations on the Safeguards and Supervision of Nuclear Imports and Exports and International Nuclear Cooperation

II. In the Chemical Field

Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Administration of Controlled Chemicals

List of Controlled Chemicals

Detailed Rules for the Implementation of the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Administration of Controlled Chemicals

List of New Controlled Chemicals Under Category III

III. In the Arms Export Field

Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Administration of Arms Export

Military Products Export Control List of the People’s Republic of China

IV. In the Dual-Use Items Field

Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on the Export Control of Dual-Use Items

V. Other Relevant Laws

Export Control Law of the People’s Republic of China

Foreign Trade Law of the People’s Republic of China

Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Administrative Punishments

Customs Law of the People’s Republic of China

Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China and its amendment